Текущее состояние и перспективы обращения с графитом из уран-графитовых реакторов
Ключевые слова:
реакторный графит, снятие с эксплуатации, уран-графитовые реакторы, демонтаж графита, радиоуглерод
Аннотация
Цель настоящего исследования — сбор информации по текущей ситуации с графитом из уран-графитовых реакторов во всем мире. Рассмотрены технические, организационные, экономические и общественные аспекты этого вопроса. Изучены работы по исследованию самых перспективных методов обращения с графитом, как с точки зрения определения радиационных и механических характеристик, так и с точки зрения его дальнейшей обработки. Подобраны публикации, в которых отражены факторы, в современном западном обществе сильно влияющие на исследуемые методики (общественное мнение, экономика и безопасность всех процессов).
Собрана и проанализирована информация о текущем состоянии большинства составляющих процесса обращения с радиоактивным графитом — его классификация, способы демонтажа, методы обработки и упаковки и места его окончательного захоронения. Обобщена статистика объемов и текущее состояние графита по всем странам, в которых такие реакторы существуют, перечислены текущие регламенты и согласованные властями этих стран пути обращения с графитом. Проанализировано большинство на сегодняшний день предложенных методов по определению его физического состояния и радиационных характеристик, его обработки с точки зрения практического применения в промышленных масштабах, изучена информация о глубоких геологических хранилищах во всем мире, а также проанализированы доступные сведения о реализованных проектах по снятию с эксплуатации уран-графитовых реакторов. Рассмотрен новый взгляд на влияние возможного выхода самого значимого радионуклида в реакторном графите — 14С на естественное его содержание в природе. Проведено сравнение стоимостей так называемого «базового» и «Carbon Capture and Sequestration» методов в Великобритании, а также тарифов на захоронение для глубоких геологических хранилищ для средне- и высокоактивных отходов в России.
Сделан вывод, что на сегодняшний день нет универсальных и готовых решений по безопасным и экономически целесообразным методам полного цикла демонтажа и утилизации реакторного графита, но, с другой стороны, работа позволила выявить возможно единственные направления, в которых надо проводить будущие исследования и расчеты.
Литература
1. Characterization, Treatment and Conditioning of Radioactive Graphite from Decommissioning of Nuclear Reactors. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2006.
2. Colgan P.A. e. a. Report of the RPII Visit to BNFL Sellafield. Dublin: Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland, 2014.
3. NEA Nuclear Innovation 2050 [Электрон. ресурс] https://www.oecd-nea.org/upload/docs/application/pdf/2020-07/04pieraccinini2050decommissioning.pdf (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
4. World Nuclear Association [Офиц. сайт] https://world-nuclear.org/ (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
5. Fisher M. FORT ST. VRAIN Decommissioning Project. Denver: Public Service Company of Colorado, 1998.
6. Halliwell C. The Windscale Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (WAGR) Decommissioning Project. A Close Out Report for WAGR Decommissioning Campaigns 1 to 10-12474. Risley: Sellafield Ltd, 2012.
7. Kirby B. Brookhaven Graphite Research Reactor (BGRR) D&D Project. San Jose: S.A. Technology (SAT) Inc., 2011.
8. Report on the Accident at Windscale No. 1 Pile on 10 October 1957 // J. Radiological Protection. 2017. V. 37(3). Pp. 780—796.
9. Review of Baseline Assumptions Regarding Disposal of Core Graphite in a Geological Disposal Facility // NDA Technical Note. 2016. No. 16495644.
10. Higher Activity Waste — The Long-term Management of Reactor Core Graphite Waste (Gate A) [Электрон. ресурс] https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/457088/The_long-term_management_of_reactor_core_graphite_credible_options__Gate_A_.pdf (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
11. Geological Disposal Overview of International Siting Processes [Электрон. ресурс] https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a815d7ee5274a2e87dbd3c0/Overview_of_international_siting_processes_September_2013.pdf (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
12. Classification of Radioactive Waste: Safety Guide. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2009.
13. Processing of Irradiated Graphite to Meet Acceptance Criteria for Waste Disposal. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2016.
14. Characterization, Treatment and Conditioning of Radioactive Graphite from Decommissioning of Nuclear Reactors. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2006.
15. Игналинская АЭС [Офиц. сайт] https://www.iae.lt/ru (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
16. Poškas G. Current Status of Decommissioning in Lithuania. Kaunas: Lithuanian Energy Institute Nuclear Engineering Laboratory, 2017.
17. Plukienea R., Anciusa D., Plukisa A. Current Status of the Radiological Characterization of the Irradiated Graphite from the RBMK-1500 Reactor in Lithuania. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.
18. Remeikisa V. e. a. Characterization of RBMK-1500 Graphite: a Method to Identify the Neutron Activation and Surface Contamination Terms // Nuclear Eng. and Design. 2020. V. 361. P. 110501.
19. Goodwin J. e. a. From Core to Capture: Graphite Management by Gasification and Carbon Capture & Storage. N.-Y., 2016.
20. Progress in radioactive graphite waste management. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.
21. Bushuev A.V. e. a. Radionuclide Characterization of Graphite Stacks from Plutonium Production Reactors of Siberian Group of Chemical Enterprises [Электрон. ресурс] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237331904_RADIONUCLIDE_CHARACTERIZATION_OF_GRAPHITE_STACKS_FROM_PLUTONIUM_PRODUCTION_REACTORS_OF_THE_SIBERIAN_GROUP_OF_CHEMICAL_ENTERPRISES (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
22. White I.F. e. a. Assessment of Management Modes for Graphite from Reactor Decommissioning // CEC Rep. (Nuclear Sci. and Technol.), 1984.
23. ISO 6184-1:1985. Explosion Protection Systems — Pt. 1: Determination of Explosion Indices of Combustible Dusts in Air.
24. Schweitzer D.G. e. a. A Safety Assessment of the Use of Graphite in Nuclear Reactors Licensed by the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Washington: Brookhaven National Laboratory, 1987.
25. Richards M.B., Combustibility of High-purity Nuclear-grade Graphite // Proc. XXII Biennial Conf. Carbon. San Diego, 1995. Pp. 598—599.
26. Wickham A., Rahmani L. Graphite Dust Explosibility in Decommissioning: a Demonstration of Minimal Risk. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.
27. Field P. Dust Explosions // Handbook of Powder Technology. N.-Y.: Elsevier, 1982.
28. Guiroy J.J. Graphite Waste Incineration in a Fluidised Bed, Graphite Moderator Lifecycle Behaviour // Proc. IAEA Meeting. Bath, 1996.
29. Fairhall G.A. Objectives and Scope of the Joint Funded BNFL/DOE Product Evaluation Development Programme // Rep. DOE/RW/89/050, 1989.
30. Guiroy J.J. Graphite Waste Incineration in a Fluidised Bed. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 1996.
31. Давыдова Г.Б., Краюшкин А.В., Смирнова А.К. О радиоуглероде в уран-графитовых реакторах НИЦ «Курчатовский институт» // Вопросы атомной науки и техники. Серия «Физика ядерных реакторов». 2022. № 5. С. 85—89.
32. Дорофеев А. Н. и др. К вопросу захоронения реакторного графита // Журнал Радиоактивные отходы. 2019. № 2(7). С. 18—30.
33. Скачек М.А. Обращение с отработавшим ядерным топливом и радиоактивными отходами АЭС. М.: Изд-во МЭИ, 2007.
34. Нечаев А.Ф., Винницкий В.А. Обезвреживание реакторного графита: проблемы и решения // Известия Санкт-Петербургского гос. технолог. института (технического ун-та). 2022. № 61(87). С. 22—26.
35. Чуйко Д.В. Применение имитационного моделирования для демонтажа реакторных установок первой очереди Белоярской АЭС: дис. … канд. техн. наук. М.: НИЦ «Курчатовский институт», 2014
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Для цитирования: Марич Н., Гольцев А.О. Текущее состояние и перспективы обращения с графитом из уран-графитовых реакторов // Вестник МЭИ. 2024. № 5. С. 112—122. DOI: 10.24160/1993-6982-2024-5-112-122
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Конфликт интересов: авторы заявляют об отсутствии конфликта интересов
#
1. Characterization, Treatment and Conditioning of Radioactive Graphite from Decommissioning of Nuclear Reactors. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2006.
2. Colgan P.A. e. a. Report of the RPII Visit to BNFL Sellafield. Dublin: Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland, 2014.
3. NEA Nuclear Innovation 2050 [Elektron. Resurs] https://www.oecd-nea.org/upload/docs/application/pdf/2020-07/04pieraccinini2050decommissioning.pdf (Data Obrashcheniya 12.01.2024).
4. World Nuclear Association [Ofits. Sayt] https://world-nuclear.org/ (Data Obrashcheniya 12.01.2024).
5. Fisher M. FORT ST. VRAIN Decommissioning Project. Denver: Public Service Company of Colorado, 1998.
6. Halliwell C. The Windscale Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (WAGR) Decommissioning Project. A Close Out Report for WAGR Decommissioning Campaigns 1 to 10-12474. Risley: Sellafield Ltd, 2012.
7. Kirby B. Brookhaven Graphite Research Reactor (BGRR) D&D Project. San Jose: S.A. Technology (SAT) Inc., 2011.
8. Report on the Accident at Windscale No. 1 Pile on 10 October 1957. J. Radiological Protection. 2017;37(3):780—796.
9. Review of Baseline Assumptions Regarding Disposal of Core Graphite in a Geological Disposal Facility. NDA Technical Note. 2016;16495644.
10. Higher Activity Waste — The Long-term Management of Reactor Core Graphite Waste (Gate A) [Elektron. Resurs] https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/457088/The_long-term_management_of_reactor_core_graphite_credible_options__Gate_A_.pdf (Data Obrashcheniya 12.01.2024).
11. Geological Disposal Overview of International Siting Processes [Elektron. Resurs] https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a815d7ee5274a2e87dbd3c0/Overview_of_international_siting_processes_September_2013.pdf (Data Obrashcheniya 12.01.2024).
12. Classification of Radioactive Waste: Safety Guide. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2009.
13. Processing of Irradiated Graphite to Meet Acceptance Criteria for Waste Disposal. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2016.
14. Characterization, Treatment and Conditioning of Radioactive Graphite from Decommissioning of Nuclear Reactors. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2006.
15. Ignalinskaya AES [Ofits. Sayt] https://www.iae.lt/ru (Data Obrashcheniya 12.01.2024). (in Russian).
16. Poškas G. Current Status of Decommissioning in Lithuania. Kaunas: Lithuanian Energy Institute Nuclear Engineering Laboratory, 2017.
17. Plukienea R., Anciusa D., Plukisa A. Current Status of the Radiological Characterization of the Irradiated Graphite from the RBMK-1500 Reactor in Lithuania. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.
18. Remeikisa V. e. a. Characterization of RBMK-1500 Graphite: a Method to Identify the Neutron Activation and Surface Contamination Terms. Nuclear Eng. and Design. 2020;361:110501.
19. Goodwin J. e. a. From Core to Capture: Graphite Management by Gasification and Carbon Capture & Storage. N.-Y., 2016.
20. Progress in radioactive graphite waste management. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.
21. Bushuev A.V. e. a. Radionuclide Characterization of Graphite Stacks from Plutonium Production Reactors of Siberian Group of Chemical Enterprises [Elektron. Resurs] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237331904_RADIONUCLIDE_CHARACTERIZATION_OF_GRAPHITE_STACKS_FROM_PLUTONIUM_PRODUCTION_REACTORS_OF_THE_SIBERIAN_GROUP_OF_CHEMICAL_ENTERPRISES (Data Obrashcheniya 12.01.2024).
22. White I.F. e. a. Assessment of Management Modes for Graphite from Reactor Decommissioning. CEC Rep. (Nuclear Sci. and Technol.), 1984.
23. ISO 6184-1:1985. Explosion Protection Systems — Pt. 1: Determination of Explosion Indices of Combustible Dusts in Air.
24. Schweitzer D.G. e. a. A Safety Assessment of the Use of Graphite in Nuclear Reactors Licensed by the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Washington: Brookhaven National Laboratory, 1987.
25. Richards M.B., Combustibility of High-purity Nuclear-grade Graphite. Proc. XXII Biennial Conf. Carbon. San Diego, 1995:598—599.
26. Wickham A., Rahmani L. Graphite Dust Explosibility in Decommissioning: a Demonstration of Minimal Risk. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.
27. Field P. Dust Explosions. Handbook of Powder Technology. N.-Y.: Elsevier, 1982.
28. Guiroy J.J. Graphite Waste Incineration in a Fluidised Bed, Graphite Moderator Lifecycle Behaviour. Proc. IAEA Meeting. Bath, 1996.
29. Fairhall G.A. Objectives and Scope of the Joint Funded BNFL/DOE Product Evaluation Development Programme. Rep. DOE/RW/89/050, 1989.
30. Guiroy J.J. Graphite Waste Incineration in a Fluidised Bed. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 1996.
31. Davydova G.B., Krayushkin A.V., Smirnova A.K. O Radiouglerode V Uran-grafitovykh Reaktorakh NITS «Kurchatovskiy Institut». Voprosy Atomnoy Nauki i Tekhniki. Seriya «Fizika Yadernykh Reaktorov». 2022;5:85—89. (in Russian).
32. Dorofeev A. N. i dr. K Voprosu Zakhoroneniya Reaktornogo Grafita. Zhurnal Radioaktivnye Otkhody. 2019;2(7):18—30. (in Russian).
33. Skachek M.A. Obrashchenie s Otrabotavshim Yadernym Toplivom i Radioaktivnymi Otkhodami AES. M.: Izd-vo MEI, 2007. (in Russian).
34. Nechaev A.F., Vinnitskiy V.A. Obezvrezhivanie Reaktornogo Grafita: Problemy i Resheniya. Izvestiya Sankt-Peterburgskogo Gos. Tekhnolog. Instituta (Tekhnicheskogo Un-ta). 2022;61(87):22—26. (in Russian).
35. Chuyko D.V. Primenenie Imitatsionnogo Modelirovaniya dlya Demontazha Reaktornykh Ustanovok Pervoy Ocheredi Beloyarskoy AES: Dis. … Kand. Tekhn. Nauk. M.: NITS «Kurchatovskiy Institut», 2014. (in Russian)
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For citation: Marich N., Goltsev A.O. Current State and Prospects of Handling Graphite from Uranium-graphite Reactors. Bulletin of MPEI. 2024;5:112—122. (in Russian). DOI: 10.24160/1993-6982-2024-5-112-122
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Conflict of interests: the authors declare no conflict of interest
2. Colgan P.A. e. a. Report of the RPII Visit to BNFL Sellafield. Dublin: Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland, 2014.
3. NEA Nuclear Innovation 2050 [Электрон. ресурс] https://www.oecd-nea.org/upload/docs/application/pdf/2020-07/04pieraccinini2050decommissioning.pdf (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
4. World Nuclear Association [Офиц. сайт] https://world-nuclear.org/ (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
5. Fisher M. FORT ST. VRAIN Decommissioning Project. Denver: Public Service Company of Colorado, 1998.
6. Halliwell C. The Windscale Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (WAGR) Decommissioning Project. A Close Out Report for WAGR Decommissioning Campaigns 1 to 10-12474. Risley: Sellafield Ltd, 2012.
7. Kirby B. Brookhaven Graphite Research Reactor (BGRR) D&D Project. San Jose: S.A. Technology (SAT) Inc., 2011.
8. Report on the Accident at Windscale No. 1 Pile on 10 October 1957 // J. Radiological Protection. 2017. V. 37(3). Pp. 780—796.
9. Review of Baseline Assumptions Regarding Disposal of Core Graphite in a Geological Disposal Facility // NDA Technical Note. 2016. No. 16495644.
10. Higher Activity Waste — The Long-term Management of Reactor Core Graphite Waste (Gate A) [Электрон. ресурс] https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/457088/The_long-term_management_of_reactor_core_graphite_credible_options__Gate_A_.pdf (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
11. Geological Disposal Overview of International Siting Processes [Электрон. ресурс] https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a815d7ee5274a2e87dbd3c0/Overview_of_international_siting_processes_September_2013.pdf (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
12. Classification of Radioactive Waste: Safety Guide. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2009.
13. Processing of Irradiated Graphite to Meet Acceptance Criteria for Waste Disposal. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2016.
14. Characterization, Treatment and Conditioning of Radioactive Graphite from Decommissioning of Nuclear Reactors. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2006.
15. Игналинская АЭС [Офиц. сайт] https://www.iae.lt/ru (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
16. Poškas G. Current Status of Decommissioning in Lithuania. Kaunas: Lithuanian Energy Institute Nuclear Engineering Laboratory, 2017.
17. Plukienea R., Anciusa D., Plukisa A. Current Status of the Radiological Characterization of the Irradiated Graphite from the RBMK-1500 Reactor in Lithuania. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.
18. Remeikisa V. e. a. Characterization of RBMK-1500 Graphite: a Method to Identify the Neutron Activation and Surface Contamination Terms // Nuclear Eng. and Design. 2020. V. 361. P. 110501.
19. Goodwin J. e. a. From Core to Capture: Graphite Management by Gasification and Carbon Capture & Storage. N.-Y., 2016.
20. Progress in radioactive graphite waste management. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.
21. Bushuev A.V. e. a. Radionuclide Characterization of Graphite Stacks from Plutonium Production Reactors of Siberian Group of Chemical Enterprises [Электрон. ресурс] https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237331904_RADIONUCLIDE_CHARACTERIZATION_OF_GRAPHITE_STACKS_FROM_PLUTONIUM_PRODUCTION_REACTORS_OF_THE_SIBERIAN_GROUP_OF_CHEMICAL_ENTERPRISES (дата обращения 12.01.2024).
22. White I.F. e. a. Assessment of Management Modes for Graphite from Reactor Decommissioning // CEC Rep. (Nuclear Sci. and Technol.), 1984.
23. ISO 6184-1:1985. Explosion Protection Systems — Pt. 1: Determination of Explosion Indices of Combustible Dusts in Air.
24. Schweitzer D.G. e. a. A Safety Assessment of the Use of Graphite in Nuclear Reactors Licensed by the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Washington: Brookhaven National Laboratory, 1987.
25. Richards M.B., Combustibility of High-purity Nuclear-grade Graphite // Proc. XXII Biennial Conf. Carbon. San Diego, 1995. Pp. 598—599.
26. Wickham A., Rahmani L. Graphite Dust Explosibility in Decommissioning: a Demonstration of Minimal Risk. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.
27. Field P. Dust Explosions // Handbook of Powder Technology. N.-Y.: Elsevier, 1982.
28. Guiroy J.J. Graphite Waste Incineration in a Fluidised Bed, Graphite Moderator Lifecycle Behaviour // Proc. IAEA Meeting. Bath, 1996.
29. Fairhall G.A. Objectives and Scope of the Joint Funded BNFL/DOE Product Evaluation Development Programme // Rep. DOE/RW/89/050, 1989.
30. Guiroy J.J. Graphite Waste Incineration in a Fluidised Bed. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 1996.
31. Давыдова Г.Б., Краюшкин А.В., Смирнова А.К. О радиоуглероде в уран-графитовых реакторах НИЦ «Курчатовский институт» // Вопросы атомной науки и техники. Серия «Физика ядерных реакторов». 2022. № 5. С. 85—89.
32. Дорофеев А. Н. и др. К вопросу захоронения реакторного графита // Журнал Радиоактивные отходы. 2019. № 2(7). С. 18—30.
33. Скачек М.А. Обращение с отработавшим ядерным топливом и радиоактивными отходами АЭС. М.: Изд-во МЭИ, 2007.
34. Нечаев А.Ф., Винницкий В.А. Обезвреживание реакторного графита: проблемы и решения // Известия Санкт-Петербургского гос. технолог. института (технического ун-та). 2022. № 61(87). С. 22—26.
35. Чуйко Д.В. Применение имитационного моделирования для демонтажа реакторных установок первой очереди Белоярской АЭС: дис. … канд. техн. наук. М.: НИЦ «Курчатовский институт», 2014
---
Для цитирования: Марич Н., Гольцев А.О. Текущее состояние и перспективы обращения с графитом из уран-графитовых реакторов // Вестник МЭИ. 2024. № 5. С. 112—122. DOI: 10.24160/1993-6982-2024-5-112-122
---
Конфликт интересов: авторы заявляют об отсутствии конфликта интересов
#
1. Characterization, Treatment and Conditioning of Radioactive Graphite from Decommissioning of Nuclear Reactors. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2006.
2. Colgan P.A. e. a. Report of the RPII Visit to BNFL Sellafield. Dublin: Radiological Protection Institute of Ireland, 2014.
3. NEA Nuclear Innovation 2050 [Elektron. Resurs] https://www.oecd-nea.org/upload/docs/application/pdf/2020-07/04pieraccinini2050decommissioning.pdf (Data Obrashcheniya 12.01.2024).
4. World Nuclear Association [Ofits. Sayt] https://world-nuclear.org/ (Data Obrashcheniya 12.01.2024).
5. Fisher M. FORT ST. VRAIN Decommissioning Project. Denver: Public Service Company of Colorado, 1998.
6. Halliwell C. The Windscale Advanced Gas Cooled Reactor (WAGR) Decommissioning Project. A Close Out Report for WAGR Decommissioning Campaigns 1 to 10-12474. Risley: Sellafield Ltd, 2012.
7. Kirby B. Brookhaven Graphite Research Reactor (BGRR) D&D Project. San Jose: S.A. Technology (SAT) Inc., 2011.
8. Report on the Accident at Windscale No. 1 Pile on 10 October 1957. J. Radiological Protection. 2017;37(3):780—796.
9. Review of Baseline Assumptions Regarding Disposal of Core Graphite in a Geological Disposal Facility. NDA Technical Note. 2016;16495644.
10. Higher Activity Waste — The Long-term Management of Reactor Core Graphite Waste (Gate A) [Elektron. Resurs] https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/457088/The_long-term_management_of_reactor_core_graphite_credible_options__Gate_A_.pdf (Data Obrashcheniya 12.01.2024).
11. Geological Disposal Overview of International Siting Processes [Elektron. Resurs] https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5a815d7ee5274a2e87dbd3c0/Overview_of_international_siting_processes_September_2013.pdf (Data Obrashcheniya 12.01.2024).
12. Classification of Radioactive Waste: Safety Guide. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2009.
13. Processing of Irradiated Graphite to Meet Acceptance Criteria for Waste Disposal. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2016.
14. Characterization, Treatment and Conditioning of Radioactive Graphite from Decommissioning of Nuclear Reactors. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2006.
15. Ignalinskaya AES [Ofits. Sayt] https://www.iae.lt/ru (Data Obrashcheniya 12.01.2024). (in Russian).
16. Poškas G. Current Status of Decommissioning in Lithuania. Kaunas: Lithuanian Energy Institute Nuclear Engineering Laboratory, 2017.
17. Plukienea R., Anciusa D., Plukisa A. Current Status of the Radiological Characterization of the Irradiated Graphite from the RBMK-1500 Reactor in Lithuania. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.
18. Remeikisa V. e. a. Characterization of RBMK-1500 Graphite: a Method to Identify the Neutron Activation and Surface Contamination Terms. Nuclear Eng. and Design. 2020;361:110501.
19. Goodwin J. e. a. From Core to Capture: Graphite Management by Gasification and Carbon Capture & Storage. N.-Y., 2016.
20. Progress in radioactive graphite waste management. Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency, 2010.
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For citation: Marich N., Goltsev A.O. Current State and Prospects of Handling Graphite from Uranium-graphite Reactors. Bulletin of MPEI. 2024;5:112—122. (in Russian). DOI: 10.24160/1993-6982-2024-5-112-122
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Conflict of interests: the authors declare no conflict of interest
Опубликован
2024-06-18
Выпуск
Раздел
Ядерные энергетические установки, топливный цикл, радиационная безопасность (технические науки) (2.4.9)
